Causes of orbital apex syndrome
| Inflammatory Sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody vasculitis (granulomatosis with polyangiitis, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, microscopic polyangiitis), Tolosa-Hunt syndrome, giant cell arteritis, orbital inflammatory pseudotumor, thyroid orbitopathy, immunoglobulin G4-related disease |
| Infectious Fungi: Aspergillosis, mucormycosis Bacteria: Streptococcus species, Staphylococcus species, Actinomyces species, gram-negative bacilli, anaerobes, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Spirochetes: Treponema pallidum Viruses: Herpes zoster ophthalmicus |
| Neoplastic Head and neck tumors: nasopharyngeal carcinoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma Neural tumors: neurofibroma, meningioma, ciliary neurinoma, schwannoma Metastases: lung, breast, renal cell, malignant melanoma Hematologic: non-Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia Perineural invasion of cutaneous malignancy |
| Iatrogenic Sinonasal surgery, orbital-facial surgery |
| Traumatic Orbital apex fracture, retained foreign body, penetrating or nonpenetrating injury |
| Vascular Carotid cavernous aneurysm, carotid cavernous fistula, cavernous sinus thrombosis, sickle cell anemia |
| Other Mucocele |
Adapted from reference 8.